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Patriarchy

Sources

These are primary texts, national laws, official statistics, court materials, and research used across the encyclopedia. Check each strong claim against the source linked beside it.

Read How we work with materials for the project’s position, evidence standards, geographic scope, and bilingual editorial workflow.

  1. Alexandra Kollontai, “Communism and the Family”
  2. Nadezhda Krupskaya, preface to The Emancipation of Women
  3. Nadezhda Krupskaya, “On Communist Ethics”
  4. Federal Law No. 53-FZ, conscription of male citizens
  5. Rosstat, Women and Men of Russia 2024
  6. Rosstat, workplace injuries in Buryatia
  7. Rosstat, workplace injuries in Amur Oblast
  8. Rosstat, male and female life expectancy in Samara Oblast
  9. Rosstat, male and female life expectancy in Novosibirsk Oblast
  10. Study of five million Russian criminal sentences
  11. HSE, sex differences in Russian homicide sentencing
  12. Russian Constitutional Court, life imprisonment and sex
  13. Russian Family Code, child residence when parents live apart
  14. Russian Supreme Court, child support and income shares
  15. Bailiff Service, women are almost a quarter of the persistent support-debtor register
  16. Bailiff Service, female debtors and withholding from formal income
  17. Penza Bailiff Service, origin of the regional “70 percent” figure
  18. Russian Gazette, estimate of residence decisions placing children with mothers
  19. Russian Supreme Court, most children remain with mothers after parental separation
  20. Russian Family Code, Article 80: child support is not tied to divorce
  21. Russian Family Code, Article 81: income shares for minor children
  22. Russian Enforcement Proceedings Act, Article 99: withholding up to 70 percent
  23. Russian Ministry of Justice, subsistence-minimum protection does not apply to child-support enforcement
  24. Russian Federal Bailiff Service, electronic bank exchange and collection from incoming funds
  25. UK Child Maintenance Service, statutory calculation and shared-care reductions, updated 2026
  26. Canada, Federal Child Support Guidelines, section 9: shared parenting time
  27. Australia, Child Support (Assessment) Act 1989
  28. Services Australia, child-support assessment formula and care percentages
  29. United States Code, 15 U.S.C. § 1673: limits on wage garnishment for support
  30. EU Charter of Fundamental Rights, Article 24: the child’s right to contact with both parents
  31. EU Regulation 2019/1111, Brussels IIb: jurisdiction and enforcement in parental-responsibility cases
  32. EU Regulation 4/2009: jurisdiction, recognition, and enforcement of maintenance obligations
  33. Kentucky Revised Statutes 403.270: presumption of joint custody and equally shared parenting time
  34. Kentucky Revised Statutes 403.315: domestic-violence limits on the equal-parenting presumption
  35. Kentucky Revised Statutes 403.2122: shared-parenting-time child-support credit
  36. Kentucky Court of Appeals, Carr v. Carr: courts must apply the equal-time presumption before deviating
  37. Holocaust Encyclopedia, economic antisemitism and the myth of “Jewish capital”
  38. Norah Vincent interview about Self-Made Man
  39. Christine Morris, Matriarchy, Gimbutas and figurines. Entanglements with the Goddess
  40. Sabina Cveček, Enthrone, dethrone, rethrone? The multiple lives of matrilineal kinship in Aegean prehistory
  41. Royal Society, A worldwide view of matriliny
  42. Royal Society, The expendable male hypothesis
  43. Cedric Perret, Emma Hart, and Simon T. Powers, From disorganized equality to efficient hierarchy
  44. Christopher von Rueden and others, Sex differences in political leadership in an egalitarian society
  45. UNESCO, Traditional Settlement at Nagari Sijunjung
  46. Susan Blackburn, State gender ideologies and the women’s movement
  47. Alberto Alesina, Paola Giuliano, and Nathan Nunn, On the Origins of Gender Roles: Women and the Plough
  48. Jennifer Utrata, Youth Privilege: Doing Age and Gender in Russia’s Single-Mother Families
  49. Anna Shadrina, Enacting the babushka
  50. United States Sentencing Commission, 2023 Demographic Differences in Federal Sentencing
  51. Ministry of Justice, England and Wales, Women and the Criminal Justice System 2023
  52. Statistics Canada, women and adult criminal-court sentencing, 2014/2015
  53. Victoria Sentencing Advisory Council, Gender Differences in Sentencing Outcomes
  54. EU Charter of Fundamental Rights, Article 20: equality before the law
  55. EU Charter of Fundamental Rights, Article 21: non-discrimination based on sex
  56. Council of Europe Parliamentary Assembly Resolution 1663, women in prison
  57. Russian Criminal Code, Article 57: life-imprisonment exclusions by sex and age
  58. Russian Criminal Code, Article 82: sentence deferral for pregnancy and parents of children under 14
  59. Russian Supreme Court Plenum Resolution No. 47 of 19 December 2023, sentence deferral
  60. UK Supreme Court, For Women Scotland Ltd v Scottish Ministers, [2025] UKSC 16
  61. United Kingdom Equality Act 2010, Schedule 3: separate and single-sex services
  62. Court of Justice of the European Union, P v S and Cornwall County Council, Case C-13/94
  63. Directive (EU) 2022/2381: gender balance among directors of listed companies
  64. Canadian Human Rights Act: sex, sexual orientation, gender identity, and gender expression
  65. Canada Employment Equity Act: women as a designated group
  66. Australia Sex Discrimination Act 1984: gender identity and special measures
  67. Russian Federal Law No. 386-FZ of 24 July 2023: restrictions on legal and medical sex transition
  68. Russian Federal Law No. 323-FZ, Article 45.1: prohibition of medical sex transition
  69. Russian Federal Law No. 323-FZ, Article 56: decision on termination of pregnancy
  70. OECD, PISA 2022 Results, Volume I: sex differences in mathematics and reading
  71. UNESCO, boys’ disengagement from education, updated April 2026
  72. OECD, PISA 2022 Country Note: Serbia
  73. US Department of Education, Title IX and sex discrimination
  74. EU Charter of Fundamental Rights, Article 14: right to education
  75. United Kingdom Equality Act 2010, section 158: positive action
  76. England Department for Education, Key Stage 4 performance, 2024/25
  77. England Department for Education, school workforce census, 2024
  78. US National Center for Education Statistics, enrolment by sex, fall 2023
  79. US National Center for Education Statistics, bachelor’s degrees by sex and field, 2021/22
  80. Australian Department of Education, women and girls in STEM
  81. Australian Department of Education, Women in STEM Cadetships and Advanced Apprenticeships
  82. European Commission, 2025 basic-skills and STEM action plan
  83. Daniel T. Lichter, Joseph P. Price, Jeffrey M. Swigert, Mismatches in the Marriage Market
  84. Birditt, Brown, Orbuch, McIlvane, Marital Conflict Behaviors and Implications for Divorce over 16 Years
  85. Candel, Turliuc, The Role of Relational Entitlement, Self-Disclosure and Perceived Partner Responsiveness in Predicting Couple Satisfaction
  86. Canevello, Crocker, Creating Good Relationships: Responsiveness, Relationship Quality, and Interpersonal Goals
  87. Jussi Heikkilä and Ina Laukkanen, Gender-specific Call of Duty: A Note on the Neglect of Conscription in Gender Equality Indices, Defence and Peace Economics, 2022
  88. Jay Teachman, Lucky Tedrow, and Carter Anderson, The Relationship between Military Service and Childbearing for Men and Women, Sociological Perspectives, 2015
  89. Elizabeth Brainerd, The Lasting Effect of Sex Ratio Imbalance on Marriage and Family: Evidence from World War II in Russia, Review of Economics and Statistics, 2017
  90. Iris Kesternich, Bettina Siflinger, James P. Smith, and Carina Steckenleiter, Unbalanced sex ratios in Germany caused by World War II and their effect on fertility: A life cycle perspective, European Economic Review, 2020
  91. Morgan K. Anderson et al., The Role of Gender and Physical Performance on Injuries: An Army Study, American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 2017
  92. Kyle Greenberg, Melanie Wasserman, and E. Anna Weber, The Effects of Gender Integration on Men: Evidence from the U.S. Military, Quarterly Journal of Economics, 2026
  93. Ministry of Defence of Ukraine, mobilization rules and citizens’ obligations, 22 March 2025
  94. Norwegian Armed Forces, universal conscription for both sexes since 2015
  95. Swedish Defence Conscription and Assessment Agency, gender-neutral conscription and total-defence duty
  96. Danish Armed Forces, full equality of men and women in conscription from 1 July 2025
  97. Raúl Rojas, The First Computer Program, 2023
  98. Ada Lovelace, “Notes by the Translator” to Menabrea’s Sketch of the Analytical Engine, Scientific Memoirs, 1843
  99. Charles Babbage, Passages from the Life of a Philosopher, 1864
  100. Thomas J. Misa, Charles Babbage, Ada Lovelace, and the Bernoulli Numbers, 2023
  101. Sue Bruley, The Women and Men of 1926: A Gender and Social History of the General Strike and Miners’ Lockout in South Wales, University of Wales Press, 2010
  102. California Court of Appeal, County of San Luis Obispo v. Nathaniel J., 50 Cal. App. 4th 842 (1996)
  103. Alabama Court of Civil Appeals, S.F. v. State ex rel. T.M., 695 So. 2d 1186 (1996)
  104. Michael J. Higdon, Fatherhood by Conscription: Nonconsensual Insemination and the Duty of Child Support, Georgia Law Review, 2012
  105. Domestic Abuse Intervention Programs, history of the Power and Control Wheel and its 1982 creation
  106. Domestic Abuse Intervention Programs, Power and Control Wheel FAQ and definition of battering as a pattern of control
  107. Ellen L. Pence, “Some Thoughts on Philosophy,” in Coordinating Community Responses to Domestic Violence: Lessons from Duluth and Beyond, SAGE, 1999
  108. John Archer, Sex differences in aggression between heterosexual partners: a meta-analytic review, Psychological Bulletin, 2000
  109. Andreia Machado, Catarina Sousa, Olga Cunha, Bidirectional Violence in Intimate Relationships: A Systematic Review, Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 2024
  110. Michael P. Johnson, Conflict and Control: Gender Symmetry and Asymmetry in Domestic Violence, Violence Against Women, 2006
  111. CDC, current summary of intimate partner violence victimization and impact
  112. CDC, risk and protective factors for intimate partner violence, 2024
  113. Jenney Zhu et al., Adverse childhood experiences and intimate partner violence: A meta-analysis, Development and Psychopathology, 2023
  114. Molly A. Maloney, Christopher I. Eckhardt, Daniel W. Oesterle, Emotion regulation and intimate partner violence perpetration: A meta-analysis, Clinical Psychology Review, 2023
  115. Amany Tanyos et al., Perpetrator alcohol use and intimate partner violence in high-income countries: a systematic review and meta-analysis, Addiction, 2026
  116. Julia C. Babcock et al., Which battering interventions work? An updated meta-analytic review of intimate partner violence treatment outcome research, Clinical Psychology Review, 2024
  117. B. Ann Bettencourt and Norman Miller, Gender differences in aggression as a function of provocation: a meta-analysis, Psychological Bulletin, 1996
  118. Christopher M. Murphy and K. Daniel O’Leary, Psychological aggression predicts physical aggression in early marriage, Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 1989
  119. Julie A. Schumacher and Kenneth E. Leonard, Husbands’ and wives’ marital adjustment, verbal aggression, and physical aggression as longitudinal predictors of physical aggression in early marriage, 2005
  120. Annah G. McCurry, Robert C. May, and David I. Donaldson, Both partners’ negative emotion drives aggression during couples’ conflict, Communications Psychology, 2024
  121. Deborah M. Capaldi, Hyoun K. Kim, and Joann Wu Shortt, Observed Initiation and Reciprocity of Physical Aggression in Young, At-Risk Couples, Journal of Family Violence, 2007
  122. Zeev Winstok, Ronit Smadar-Dror, and Michael Weinberg, Gender differences in intimate-conflict initiation and escalation tendencies, Aggressive Behavior, 2018
  123. Andrew Christensen and Christopher L. Heavey, Gender and social structure in the demand/withdraw pattern of marital conflict, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1990
  124. Gender, attachment, and demand/withdraw patterns in the context of moderate couple conflict in cisgender, heterosexual relationships, Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 2024
  125. Diogo Costa et al., Intimate partner violence: a study in men and women from six European countries, International Journal of Public Health, 2015
  126. Alexandra Lysova, Karl Hanson, James Mackay, Rates of male and female physical victimization and perpetration in intimate relationships: a comprehensive review, Partner Abuse, 2025
  127. Office for National Statistics, Domestic abuse victim characteristics, England and Wales: year ending March 2025
  128. The National Archives, history of the first Chiswick safe house for women and children
  129. Erin Pizzey, Prone to Violence, Introduction and Preface, 1982
  130. Erin Pizzey, The Respondent interview on the attempted refuge for battered men
  131. Refuge, Sandra Horley on leading the Chiswick refuge from 1983 and the later Refuge name
  132. The Spectator, 1992, Domestic Violence: The Other Side, Sandra Horley on the funding implications of recognizing male abuse
  133. Megan H. Bair-Merritt et al., Why Do Women Use Intimate Partner Violence? A Systematic Review of Women’s Motivations, Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 2010
  134. Jennifer E. Caldwell et al., Why I Hit Him: Women’s Reasons for Intimate Partner Violence
  135. Physical and emotional abuse in romantic relationships: motivation for perpetration among college women
  136. Susan Porter Benson, Household Accounts: Working-Class Family Economies in the Interwar United States, Cornell University Press, 2007
  137. Carolyn Vogler, Clare Lyonette, and Richard D. Wiggins, Money, Power and Spending Decisions in Intimate Relationships, British Journal of Sociology, 2008
  138. Dilyara Ibragimova and Alya Guseva, Who Is in Charge of Family Finances in the Russian Two-Earner Households?, Journal of Family Issues, 2017
  139. Alya Guseva and Dilyara Ibragimova, Autonomy as Empowerment, or How Gendered Power Manifests Itself in Contemporary Russian Families, 2020
  140. Simon Clarke, Budgetary Management in Russian Households, Sociology, 2002
  141. Dilyara Ibragimova, Who Manages Money in Russian Families?, Economic Sociology, 2012
  142. RSFSR Code of Laws on Marriage, Family and Guardianship, Article 9, 1926
  143. USSR Fundamentals of Legislation on Marriage and the Family, 1968
  144. RSFSR Code on Marriage and the Family, 1969
  145. American Historical Review, review of Susan Porter Benson’s Household Accounts, 2008
  146. EH.net, review of Susan Porter Benson’s Household Accounts, 2008
  147. Kobo, Cornell University Press EPUB edition of Susan Porter Benson’s Household Accounts: eBook ISBN 9780801454264, released 25 September 2015, 256 pages
  148. UNODC, Global Study on Homicide 2023: sex distribution of homicide suspects and victims
  149. John Archer, Sex Differences in Aggression in Real-World Settings: A Meta-Analytic Review, Review of General Psychology, 2004
  150. Ministry of Justice, England and Wales, Safety in Custody Statistics: assaults in male and female prisons to March 2026
  151. T. Jean Marie Arseneau-Robar et al., Female monkeys use both the carrot and the stick to promote male participation in intergroup fights, Proceedings of the Royal Society B, 2016
  152. Oeindrila Dube and S. P. Harish, Queens, Journal of Political Economy, 2020
  153. Noel A. Card et al., Direct and Indirect Aggression During Childhood and Adolescence: A Meta-Analytic Review, Child Development, 2008
  154. Timothy B. Mariano et al., Toward a more holistic understanding of filicide: a multidisciplinary analysis of 32 years of U.S. arrest data, Forensic Science International, 2014
  155. Jelena Gerke et al., Female-Perpetrated Child Sexual Abuse: Prevalence Rates in Germany, Journal of Child Sexual Abuse, 2020
  156. Katarzyna Banc, Monika Gut-Winiarska, and Jacek Winiarski, Relationship Management in Closed Structures: A Case Study of Psychological Abuse in Religious Communities, Communications of International Proceedings, 2025
  157. James L. Nuzzo, Sex Differences in Grip Strength From Birth to Age 16: A Meta-Analysis, European Journal of Sport Science, 2025
  158. Amanda J. Rose and Karen D. Rudolph, A Review of Sex Differences in Peer Relationship Processes, Psychological Bulletin, 2006
  159. Joseph L. Flanders et al., Rough-and-Tumble Play and the Regulation of Aggression, Aggressive Behavior, 2009
  160. Joyce F. Benenson and Helen Abadzi, Contest versus scramble competition: sex differences in the quest for status, Current Opinion in Psychology, 2020
  161. Joyce F. Benenson et al., Competition Elicits more Physical Affiliation between Male than Female Friends, Scientific Reports, 2018
  162. Tracy Vaillancourt, Do human females use indirect aggression as an intrasexual competition strategy?, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, 2013
  163. Joyce F. Benenson et al., Social Exclusion: More Important to Human Females Than Males, PLOS ONE, 2013
  164. Sun Young Lee, Selin Kesebir, and Madan M. Pillutla, Gender differences in response to competition with same-gender coworkers, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 2016
  165. Derek A. Kreager et al., In the eye of the beholder: Meaning and structure of informal status in women’s and men’s prisons, Criminology, 2021
  166. Isabelle Jonveaux, L’abus ordinaire dans les communautés monastiques féminines : une approche structurelle transnationale, Studies in Religion / Sciences Religieuses, 2025
  167. Joseph A. Vandello and Jennifer K. Bosson, Hard won and easily lost: A review and synthesis of theory and research on precarious manhood, Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 2013
  168. OECD, Man Enough? Measuring Masculine Norms to Promote Women’s Empowerment: breadwinner and financial-provider norms
  169. Sara Horrell and Jane Humphries, The Origins and Expansion of the Male Breadwinner Family: The Case of Nineteenth-Century Britain, International Review of Social History, 1997
  170. Ute Frevert, Citizenship, Mass Mobilization, and Masculinity in a Transatlantic Perspective, 1770s–1870s, The Oxford Handbook of Gender, War, and the Western World since 1600, 2020
  171. Margery Masterson, Dueling, Conflicting Masculinities, and the Victorian Gentleman, Journal of British Studies, 2017
  172. Catherine Molho et al., Direct and indirect punishment of norm violations in daily life, Nature Communications, 2020
  173. Tom Phillips, Nobody’s Home: Metis, Improvisation and the Instability of Return in Homer’s Odyssey, Ramus, 2015
  174. Grace LaFrentz, Weaving a Way to Nostos: Odysseus and Feminine Mêtis in the Odyssey, Vanderbilt Undergraduate Research Journal, 2021
  175. U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Fatal occupational injuries by worker characteristics and event or exposure, 2024
  176. U.S. Selective Service System, Who Needs to Register
  177. U.S. Bureau of Justice Statistics, Homicide Victimization in the United States, 2023
  178. CDC/NCHS, Changes in Suicide Rates in the United States From 2022 to 2023
  179. bell hooks, Understanding Patriarchy, 2004